Hydrostatic testing

A hydrostatic test is the normal way in which a gas pressure vessel such as a gas cylinder or a boiler is checked for leaks or flaws. Testing is very important because such containers can explode if they fail when containing compressed gas. Hydrostatic testing is also a way in which leaks can be found in lower pressure vessels such as pipelines and plumbing.

The vessel is filled with a nearly incompressible liquid - usually water or oil - and examined for leaks or permanent changes in shape. The test pressure is always considerably more than the operating pressure to give a margin for safety, typically 150% of the operating pressure. Water is commonly used because it is almost incompressible, so will only expand by a very small amount should the vessel split.

If high pressure gas were used, then the gas would expand to perhaps several hundred times its compressed volume in an explosion, with the attendant risk of damage or injury. This is the risk which the testing is intended to mitigate.

Small pressure vessels are normally tested using a water jacket test. The vessel is visually examined for defects and then placed in a container filled with water, and in which the change in volume of the vessel can be measured by monitoring the water level. The vessel is then pressurised for a specified period and depressurised again. The water level in the jacket is then examined. The level will be greater if the vessel being tested has been distorted by the pressure change and did not return to its original volume or some of the pressurised water inside has leaked out. In both cases, this will normally signify that the vessel has failed the test.

A simpler test is to pressurise the vessel with water and physically examine the outside for leaks. Red or fluorescent dyes are usually added to the water to make leaks easier to see.

Hydrostatic testing on pipe spools is done in such a way that the Isometric drawing is divided into spools , depending on their working pressure , and then after that giving them a certain code for Identifying each Spool and the start and end of each spool to apply the adequate type of Blind flange and bolts at the required torque

Base Riser Installation at Berth No.1 in Ras laffan

Base Riser Installation

HFO BUNKERING FACILITY PROJECT
RAS LAFFAN
18/07/2007 , Wed.

First of all , this is a historical day for MIS , Cause they have done this part of the Job , in a professional way , Error-free , Base riser the lower part of a loading arm that connects the upper
part and that connects to the main pipe that will let the fuel intended to come through it's pipe

The weight of this FMC base riser was 14.4 Tons and the crane used to lift was destined to rise
this weight at minimum distance of 26 meters from the center of the plinth that the riser will rest on, Knowing that the crane is a telescopic with a capacity of 220 tons and boom length of 68 meters

The lifting plan included another small crane to help flipping the weight to make it in the upright
Position after that scackles was tightly connected to the top of the weight , Extra cable was tightened in case of Failure , the Lifting started gradually the base riser was rising into the air
over heads till it reached the destined place over the plinth , there the metal slots and the big screws with torque wrench was waiting once laid in place the bolts were tightened from both sides and there it took it's final place waiting for the next step , the Loading arm itself.

SWL or WWL (Rigging Terminology)

Working load limit (WLL), safe working load (SWL) and minimum and
maximum rated loads explained
The term safe working load, (SWL) was the cornerstone of engineering, particularly with regard
to load carrying equipment, for many years.
It was generally considered to be the breaking load of a component divided by an appropriate
factor of safety giving a ‘safe’ load that could be lifted or be carried1.
About 20 years ago, however, the USA ceased using this term, because of legal implications.
The European and ISO Standards followed suit a few years later. However, while this was a
clean-cut move, for some time there has been indecision as to exactly what replacement terms
could be used.
Over the past two or three years, both the Americans and Europeans have agreed that working
load limit (WLL) should replace safe working load (SWL) in describing the capacity of items
such as hooks, slings and shackles etc.
A general definition of WLL was:
the maximum mass or force which a product is authorized to support in general service when the
pull is applied in-line, unless noted otherwise, with respect to the centreline of the product
i.e. the WLL of a component is specified by the manufacturer.
However, while the definition for working load limit was originally confined exclusively to the
manufacturer’s specified maximum load that the item could lift, it is now generally extended to
include both of the following:
· the maximum load that an item can lift;
· the maximum load that an item can lift in a particular configuration or application.
If the WLL is thought of as an assessment of the maximum load an item could lift under ideal
conditions, the SWL (if the term is going to be used) can now best be thought of as being a
derating of WLL, following an assessment by a competent person of the maximum load the item
can sustain under the conditions in which the item is being used.
Example:
If a 3 tonne (t) sling hook is attached to the bottom end of a 3 t single-leg wire rope or chain sling
in a general use application, it retains its inherent WLL of 3 t. This is its maximum load.
However, if a two-leg sling consists of two such legs, the WLL for the sling hook in such a
configuration is (1.73 x 3 t) / 2 = 2.6 t.
If the hook is to be used in a non-general application (e.g. in a mine shaft or in a hazardous
situation such as a hot environment), it may be derated further. Its SWL (as determined by the
competent person) in this particular application will be less than the original WLL of 3 t.
Some British (BS), European (EN) and International Standards (ISO) for personal protection
against falls from a height have introduced the terms maximum rated load and minimum rated
load into revisions of standards and into new standards. The maximum rated load equates to the
WLL. Some components require both the minimum and maximum rated load to be marked on
1 In the UK the Construction Lifting Operations Regulations 1961 defined it such that it actually became the load
which could legally be lifted.
the product. The minimum rated load is required where the performance of a component is
affected by a low mass. An example of a product where both a high mass and a low mass can
affect performance is a descending device.
The definitions of minimum and maximum rated load used in current drafts of European and ISO
Standards are as follows:
minimum rated load
minimum mass in kilograms of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with the
(insert product type), as specified by the manufacturer;
maximum rated load
maximum mass in kilograms of personnel, including tools and equipment, to be used with the
(insert product type), as specified by the manufacturer.

HVAC SYSTEMS

HVAC may also stand for High-voltage alternating current

HVAC systems use ventilation air ducts installed throughout a building that supply conditioned air to a room through rectangular or round outlet vents, called "diffusers"; and ducts that remove air from return-air "grills"

Fire-resistance rated mechanical shaft with HVAC sheet metal ducting and copper piping, as well as "HOW" (Head-Of-Wall) joint between top of concrete block wall and underside of concrete slab, firestopped with ceramic fibre-based firestop caulking on top of rockwool.

HVAC (pronounced either "H-V-A-C" or, occasionally, "H-VAK") is an initialism/acronym that stands for "heating, ventilating, and air conditioning". This is sometimes referred to as "climate control" and is particularly important in the design of medium to large industrial and office buildings such as sky scrapers and in marine environments such as aquariums, where humidity and temperature must all be closely regulated whilst maintaining safe and healthy conditions within. In certain regions (e.g., UK) the term "Building Services" is also used, but may also include plumbing and electrical systems. Refrigeration is sometimes added to the field's abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR.

Heating, Ventilation, and Air conditioning is based on the basic principles of thermodynamics, heat transfer and to inventions and discoveries made by Michael Faraday, Willis Carrier, James Joule, William Rankine, Sadi Carnot, and many others. The invention of the components of HVAC systems goes hand-in-hand with the industrial revolution, and new methods of modernization, higher efficiency, and system control are constantly introduced by companies and inventors all over the world.

The three functions of heating, ventilation and air-conditioning are closely interrelated. All seek to provide thermal comfort, acceptable indoor air quality, and reasonable installation, operation, and maintenance costs. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and maintain pressure relationships between spaces. How air is delivered to, and removed from spaces is known as room air distribution.^[1]

In modern buildings the design, installation, and control systems of these functions are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings, contractors normally "size" and select HVAC systems and equipment. For larger buildings where required by law, "building services" designers and engineers, such as mechanical, architectural, or building services engineers analyze, design, and specify the HVAC systems, and specialty mechanical contractors build and commission them. In all buildings, building permits for, and code-compliance inspections of the installations are the norm.

The HVAC industry is worldwide enterprise, with career opportunities including operation and maintenance, system design and construction, equipment manufacturing and sales, and in education and research. The HVAC industry had been historically regulated by the manufacturers of HVAC equipment, but Regulating and Standards industries such as ASHRAE, SMACNA, ACCA, and AMCA, have been established to support the industry and encourage high standards and achievement. Most recently, the ICC has been established to create international standards that many countries, including the US, Canada, the UK, Australia and many others have been adopting.

Contents [hide] 1 Heating 2 Ventilation 2.1 Mechanical or forced ventilation 2.2 Natural ventilation 3 Air-conditioning 4 HVAC energy efficiency 4.1 Heating energy 4.2 Air conditioning energy 5 HVAC Systems Design 6 HVAC industry in the United Kingdom 7 HVAC system - illustration 8 Major terms 9 Other HVAC equipment 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

[edit] Heating

Heating systems may be classified as central or local. Central heating is often used in cold climates to heat private houses and public buildings. Such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to heat water, steam, or air, all in a central location such as a furnace room in a home or a mechanical room in a large building. The system also contains piping or ductwork to distribute the heated fluid, and radiators to transfer this heat to the air. The term radiator in this context is misleading since most heat transfer from the heat exchanger is by convection, not radiation. The radiators may be mounted on walls or buried in the floor to give under-floor heating.

In boiler fed or radiant heating systems, all but the simplest systems have a pump to circulate the water and ensure an equal supply of heat to all the radiators. The heated water can also be fed through another heat exchanger inside a storage cylinder to provide hot running water.

Forced air systems send heated air through ductwork. During warm weather the same ductwork can be reused for air conditioning. The forced air can also be filtered or put through air cleaners. Most ducts cannot fit a human being (as they do in many films) since this would require a greater duct-structural integrity and create a potential security liability.

Heating can also be provided from electric, or resistance heating using a filament that glows hot when you cause electricity to pass through it. This type of heat can be found in electric baseboard heaters, portable electric heaters, and as backup or supplemental heating for heat pump (or reverse heating) system.

The heating elements (radiators or vents) should be located in the coldest part of the room and typically next to the windows to minimize condensation. Popular retail devices that direct vents away from windows to prevent "wasted" heat defeat this design parameter. Drafts contribute more to the subjective feeling of coldness than actual room temperature. Therefore, rather than improving the heating of a room/building, it is often more important to control the air leaks.

The invention of central heating is often credited to the ancient Romans, who installed a system of air ducts called "hypocaust" in the walls and floors of public baths and private villas. The ducts were fed with hot air from a central fire. Generally, these heated by radiation; a better physiologic approach to heating than conventional forced air convective heating.

[edit] Ventilation

Ventilation is the process of "changing" or replacing of air in any space to remove moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust and airborne bacteria. Ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may be divided into mechanical/forced and natural types.^[2] Ventilation is used to remove unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduce outside air, and keep to keep interior building air circulating, to prevent stagnation of the interior air.

[edit] Mechanical or forced ventilation

"Mechanical" or "forced" ventilation is used to control indoor air quality. Excess humidity, odors, and contaminants can often be controlled via dilution or replacement with outside air. But in humid climates, much energy is required to remove excess moisture from ventilation air.

Kitchens and bathrooms typically have mechanical exhaust to control odors and sometimes humidity. Factors in the design of such systems include the flow rate (which is a function of the fan speed and exhaust vent size) and noise level. If the ducting for the fans traverse unheated space (e.g., an attic), the ducting should be insulated as well to prevent condensation on the ducting. Direct drive fans are available for many applications, and can reduce maintenance needs.

Heat recovery ventilation systems employ heat exchangers to recover some heat from exhausted air, to preheat the incoming outside air.

Ceiling fans and table/floor fans are very effective in circulating air within a room. Counterintuitively, because hot air rises, ceiling fans may be used to keep a room warmer. Ceiling fans do not provide 'ventilation', however.

[edit] Natural ventilation

Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without the use of a fan or other mechanical system. It can be achieved with operable windows when the spaces to ventilate are small and the architecture permits. In more complex systems warm air in the building can be allowed to rise and flow out upper openings to the outside (stack effect) thus forcing cool outside air to be drawn into the building naturally through openings in the lower areas. These systems use very little energy but care must be taken to ensure the occupants' comfort. In warm or humid months, in many climates, maintaining thermal comfort via solely natural ventilation may not be possible so conventional air conditioning systems are used as backups. Air-side economizers perform the same function as natural ventilation, but use mechanical systems' fans, ducts, dampers, and control systems to introduce and distribute cool outdoor air when appropriate.

[edit] Air-conditioning

Air Conditioning and refrigeration is provided through the removal of heat. The definition of cold is the absence of heat, and all air conditioning systems work off of this basic principle. Heat can be removed through the process of radiation, convection, and conduction using mediums such as water, air, ice, and special refrigerants sometimes referred to as freon. In order to remove heat from something, you simply need to provide a medium that is colder- this is how all air conditioning and refrigeration systems work.

An air conditioning system, or a stand-alone air conditioner, provides cooling, ventilation, and humidity control for all or part of a house or building. The freon or refrigerant provides cooling through a process called the refrigeration cycle. The refrigeration cycle consists of four essential elements to create a cooling effect. a compressor provides compression for the system, a condenser ejects or removes heat from the system, the evaporator absorbs or adds heat to the system, and the metering device acts as a restriction in the system at the evaporator to ensure that the heat being absorbed by the system is absorbed at the proper rate.

Central, 'all-air' air conditioning systems are often installed in modern residences, offices, and public buildings, but are difficult to retrofit (install in a building that was not designed to receive it) because of the bulky air ducts required. A duct system must be carefully maintained to prevent the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the ducts. An alternative to large ducts to carry the needed air to heat or cool an area is the use of remote fan coils or split systems. These systems, although most often seen in residential applications, are gaining popularity in small commercial buildings. The remote coil is connected to a remote condenser unit using piping instead of ducts.

Dehumidification in an air conditioning system is provided by the evaporator. Since the evaporator operates at a temperature below dew point, moisture is collected at the evaporator. This moisture is collected at the bottom of the evaporator in a condensate pan and removed by piping it to a central drain or onto the ground outside. A dehumidifier is an air-conditioner-like device that controls the humidity of a room or building. They are often employed in basements which have a higher relative humidity because of their lower temperature (and propensity for damp floors and walls). In food retailing establishments, large open chiller cabinets are highly effective at dehumidifying the internal air. Conversely, a humidifier increases the humidity of a building.

Air-conditioned buildings often have sealed windows, because open windows would disrupt the attempts of the HVAC system to maintain constant indoor air conditions.

.

[edit] HVAC energy efficiency

[edit] Heating energy

Water heating is more efficient for heating buildings and was the standard many years ago. Today forced air systems can double for air conditioning and are more popular. The most efficient central heating method is geothermal heating.

Energy efficiency can be improved even more in central heating systems by introducing zoned heating. This allows a more granular application of heat, similar to non-central heating systems. Zones are controlled by multiple thermostats. In water heating systems the thermostats control zone valves, and in forced air systems they control zone dampers inside the vents which selectively block the flow of air.

[edit] Air conditioning energy

The performance of vapor compression refrigeration cycles is limited by thermodynamics. These AC and heat pump devices move heat rather than convert it from one form to another, so thermal efficiencies do not appropriately describe the performance of these devices. The Coefficient-of-Performance (COP) measures performance, but this dimensionless measure has not been adopted, but rather the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER). To more accurately describe the performance of air conditioning equipment over a typical cooling season a modified version of the EER is used, and is the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER). The SEER article describes it further, and presents some economic comparisons using this useful performance measure.

[edit] HVAC Systems Design

Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems can play several roles to reduce the environmental impact of buildings. The primary function of HVAC systems is to provide healthy and comfortable interior conditions for occupants. Well-designed, efficient systems do this with minimal non-renewable energy and air and water pollutant emissions. Cooling equipment that avoids chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (CFCs and HCFCs) eliminates a major cause of damage to the ozone layer.^{[citation needed]}

However, even the best HVAC equipment and systems cannot compensate for a building design with inherently high cooling and heating needs.^{[citation needed]} The greatest opportunities to conserve non-renewable energy are through architectural design that controls solar gain, while taking advantage of passive heating, daylighting, natural ventilation and cooling opportunities. The critical factors in mechanical systems' energy consumption - and capital cost - are reducing the cooling and heating loads they must handle.

[edit] HVAC industry in the United Kingdom

The Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers is a body that covers the essential services that allow buildings to operate. It includes the electrotechnical, heating, ventilating, air conditioning, refrigeration and plumbing industries. To train as a building services engineer, the academic requirement is GCSEs (A-C) / Standard Grades (1-3) in Maths and Science, which are important in measurements, planning and theory. Employers will often want a degree in a branch of engineering, such as building environment engineering, electrical engineering or mechanical engineering.

Within the construction sector, it is the job of the building services engineer to design, install and maintain the essential services such as gas, electricity, water, heating and lighting, as well as many others. These all help to make buildings comfortable and healthy places to live and work in. Building Services is part of a sector that has over 51,000 businesses and employs over 500,000 people. This sector has an annual turnover of £19.3 billion which represents 2%-3% of the GDP.

[edit] HVAC system - illustration

[edit] Major terms

• Air handler, or air handling unit (AHU): Central unit consisting of a blower, heating and cooling elements, filter racks or chamber, dampers, humidifier, and other central equipment in direct contact with the airflow. This does not include the ductwork through the building.
• British thermal unit (BTU): Any of several units of energy (heat) in the HVAC industry, each slightly more than 1 kJ. One BTU is the energy required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, but the many different types of BTU are based on different interpretations of this “definition”. The power of HVAC systems (the rate of cooling and dehumidifying or heating) is sometimes expressed in BTU/hour instead of simply watts.
• Chiller: A device that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycle. This cooled liquid flows through pipes in a building and passes through coils in air handlers, fan-coil units, or other systems, cooling and usually dehumidifying the air in the building. Chillers are of two types; air-cooled or water-cooled. Air-cooled chillers are usually outside and consist of condenser coils cooled by fan-driven air. Water-cooled chillers are usually inside a building, and heat from these chillers is carried by recirculating water to outdoor cooling towers.
• Controller: A device that controls the operation of part or all of a system. It may simply turn a device on and off, or it may more subtly modulate burners, compressors, pumps, valves, fans, dampers, and the like. Most controllers are automatic but have user input such as temperature set points, e.g. a thermostat. Controls may be analog, or digital, or pneumatic, or a combination of these.
• Fan-coil unit (FCU): A small terminal unit that is often composed of only a blower and a heating and/or cooling coil (heat exchanger), as is often used in hotels, condominiums, or apartments.
• Condenser: A component in the basic refrigeration cycle that ejects or removes heat from the system. The condenser is the hot side of an air conditioner or heat pump. Condensers are heat exchangers, and can transfer heat to air or to an intermediate fluid (such as water or an aqueous solution of ethylene glycol) to carry heat to a distant sink, such as ground (earth sink), a body of water, or air (as with cooling towers).
• Constant air volume (CAV): Actually means "constant air flow rate" or "constant air volume per time", not "constant air volume". This is applied to all-air or air-water HVAC systems that have variable supply-air temperature but constant flow rate of air. Most residential forced-air systems are small CAV systems with on/off control.
• Evaporator: A component in the basic refrigeration cycle that absorbs or adds heat to the system. Evaporators can be used to absorb heat from air (by reducing temperature and by removing water) or from a liquid. The evaporator is the cold side of an air conditioner or heat pump.
• Furnace: A component of an HVAC system that adds heat to air or an intermediate fluid by burning fuel (natural gas, oil, propane, butane, or other flammable substances) in a heat exchanger.
• Fresh air intake (FAI): A vent from outside a building. Outside air can be used to replace air in the building that has been exhausted by the system, or to provide fresh air for combustion of fuel.
• Heat load, heat loss, or heat gain: Terms for the amount of heating (heat loss) or cooling (heat gain) needed to maintain desired temperatures and humidities in controlled air. Regardless of how well-insulated and sealed a building is, buildings gain heat from warm air or sunlight or lose heat to cold air and by radiation. Engineers use a heat load calculation to determine the HVAC needs of the space being cooled or heated.
• Makeup air unit (MAU): An air handler that conditions 100% outside air. MAUs are typically used in industrial or commercial settings, or in once- through (blower sections that only blow air one-way into the building), low flow (air handling systems that blow air at a low flow rate), or primary-secondary (air handling sytems that have an air handler or rooftop unit connected to an add-on makeup unit or hood) commercial HVAC systems.
• Roof-top unit (RTU): An air-handling unit, defined as either "recirculating" or "once-through" design, made specifically for outdoor installation. They most often include, internally, their own heating and cooling devices. RTUs are very common in some regions, particularly in single-story commercial buildings.
• Variable air volume (VAV) system: An all-air or air-water HVAC system that has a stable supply-air temperature, but the flow rate of air varies to meet the thermal load. Compared to CAV systems, these systems waste less energy through unnecessarily-high fan speeds. Most new commercial buildings have VAV systems.
• Thermal zone: A single or group of neighboring indoor spaces that the HVAC designer expects will have similar thermal loads. Building codes may require zoning to save energy in commercial buildings. Zones are defined in the building to reduce the number of HVAC subsystems, and thus initial cost. For example, for perimeter offices, rather than one zone for each office, all offices facing west can be combined into one zone. Small residences typically have only one conditioned thermal zone, plus unconditioned spaces such as unconditioned garages, attics, and crawlspaces, and unconditioned basements.

NDT

Nondestructive testing


Nondestructive testing (NDT), also called nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and nondestructive inspection (NDI), is testing that does not destroy the test object. NDE is vital for constructing and maintaining all types of components and structures. To detect different defects such as cracking and corrosion, there are different methods of testing available, such as X-ray (where cracks show up on the film) and ultrasound (where cracks show up as an echo blip on the screen). This article is aimed mainly at industrial NDT, but many of the methods described here can be used to test the human body. In fact methods from the medical field, where there tends to be more development funding available, have often been adapted for industrial use, as was the case with Phased array ultrasonics and Computed radiography.
While destructive testing usually provides a more reliable assessment of the state of the test object, destruction of the test object usually makes this type of test more costly to the test object's owner than nondestructive testing. Destructive testing is also inappropriate in many circumstances, such as forensic investigation. That there is a tradeoff between the cost of the test and its reliability favors a strategy in which most test objects are inspected nondestructively; destructive testing is performed on a sampling of test objects that is drawn randomly for the purpose of characterizing the testing reliability of the nondestructive test.

The need for NDT
It is very difficult to weld or mold a solid object that has no risk of breaking in service, so testing at manufacture and during use is often essential. During the process of molding a metal object, for example, the metal may shrink as it cools, and crack or introduce voids inside the structure. Even the best welders (and welding machines) do not make 100% perfect welds. Some typical weld defects that need to be found and repaired are lack of fusion of the weld to the metal and porous bubbles inside the weld, both of which could cause a structure to break or a pipeline to rupture.
During their service lives, many industrial components need regular nondestructive tests to detect damage that may be difficult or expensive to find by everyday methods. For example:
aircraft skins need regular checking to detect cracks;
underground pipelines are subject to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking;
pipes in industrial plants may be subject to erosion and corrosion from the products they carry;
concrete structures may be weakened if the inner reinforcing steel is corroded;
pressure vessels may develop cracks in welds;
the wire ropes in suspension bridges are subject to weather, vibration, and high loads, so testing for broken wires and other damage is important.
Over the past centuries, swordsmiths, blacksmiths, and bell-makers would listen to the ring of the objects they were creating to get an indication of the soundness of the material. The wheel-tapper would test the wheels of locomotives for the presence of cracks, often caused by fatigue — a function that is now carried out by instrumentation and referred to as the acoustic impact technique. In the cowboy days, it was quite common for a gun to kill the shooter rather than the person they were aiming at. From the 1992 Clint Eastwood western Unforgiven, here's a quote that reflects historical reality:
Little Bill Daggett: "... Bob's as good as dead because ... Corky ... takes careful aim and BAM!, the cylinder explodes in that Walker Colt he was carrying; a failing common to that model. It would have been better if Corky had two guns..., 'cause Bob walks over and shoots him."
[edit] Methods and techniques
NDT is divided into various methods of nondestructive testing, each based on a particular scientific principle. These methods may be further subdivided into various techniques. The various methods and techniques, due to their particular natures, may lend themselves especially well to certain applications and be of little or no value at all in other applications. Therefore choosing the right method and technique is an important part of the performance of NDT.

Methods and Techniques

Liquid penetrant testing (PT or LPI)
Radiographic testing (RT) (see also Industrial radiography and Radiography)
Digital Radiography (real-time)
Computed radiography
SCAR (Small Confined Area Radiography)
Neutron radiographic testing (NR)
Computed tomography (CT)
Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
Phased array ultrasonics
Time of flight diffraction ultrasonics (TOFD)
Time of Flight Ultrasonic Determination of 3D Elastic Constants (TOF)
Internal Rotary Inspection System (IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes
Visual and optical testing (VT)
Ellipsometry
Pipeline video inspection
Electromagnetic testing (ET)
Eddy-Current Testing (ECT)
Remote field testing (RFT)
Magnetic-particle inspection (MT or MPI)
Magnetic flux leakage testing (MFL) for pipelines, tank floors, and wire rope
Barkhausen testing
Acoustic emission testing (AE)
Infrared and thermal testing (IR)
Thermographic inspection
Laser testing
Profilometry
Holography
Shearography
Leak testing (LT)
Tracer-gas method testing
Bubble testing
Absolute pressure leak testing (pressure change)
Halogen diode leak testing
Mass spectrometer leak testing

the Article above is taken from www.wikipedia.org

Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making that surface the cathode of an electrochemical cell.
It is a method used to protect metal structures from corrosion. Cathodic protection systems are most commonly used to protect steel, water/fuel pipelines and storage tanks; steel pier piles, ships, offshore oil platforms and onshore oil well casings.
A side effect of improperly performed cathodic protection may be production of molecular hydrogen, leading to its absorption in the protected metal and subsequent hydrogen embrittlement.
Cathodic protection is an effective method of preventing stress corrosion cracking.
Galvanic CP
Today, galvanic or sacrificial anodes are made in various shapes using alloys of zinc, magnesium and aluminium. The electrochemical potential, current capacity, and consumption rate of these alloys are superior for CP than iron.
Galvanic anodes are designed and selected to have a more "active" voltage (technically a more negative electrochemical potential) than the metal of the structure (typically steel). For effective CP, the potential of the steel surface is polarized (pushed) more negative until the surface has a uniform potential. At that stage, the driving force for the corrosion reaction is halted. The galvanic anode continues to corrode, consuming the anode material until eventually it must be replaced. The polarization is caused by the current flow from the anode to the cathode. The driving force for the CP current flow is the difference in electrochemical potential between the anode and the cathode.

[edit] Impressed Current CP
For larger structures, galvanic anodes cannot economically deliver enough current to provide complete protection. Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) systems use anodes connected to a DC power source (a cathodic protection rectifier). Anodes for ICCP systems are tubular and solid rod shapes or continuous ribbons of various specialized materials. These include high silicon cast iron, graphite, mixed metal oxide, platinum and niobium coated wire and others.

A cathodic protection rectifier connected to a pipeline
A typical ICCP system for a pipeline would include an AC powered rectifier with a maximum rated DC output of between 10 and 50 amperes and 50 volts. The positive DC output terminal is connected via cables to the array of anodes buried in the ground (the anode groundbed). For many applications the anodes are installed in a 60 m (200 foot) deep, 25 cm (10-inch) diameter vertical hole and backfilled with conductive coke (a material that improves the performance and life of the anodes). A cable rated for the expected current output connects the negative terminal of the rectifier to the pipeline. The operating output of the rectifier is adjusted to the optimum level by a CP expert after conducting various tests including measurements of electrochemical potential.
Telephone wiring uses a form of cathodic protection. A circuit consists of a pair of wires, with forty-eight volts across them when the line is idle. The more positive wire is grounded, so that the wires are at 0 V and -48 V with respect to earth ground. The 0 V wire is at the same potential as the surrounding earth, so it corrodes no faster or slower than if it were not connected electrically. The -48 V wire is cathodically protected. This means that in the event of minor damage to the insulation on a buried cable, both copper conductors will be unaffected, and unless the two wires short together, service will not be interrupted.
If instead the polarity were switched, so that the wires were at 0 V and +48 V with respect to the surrounding earth, then the 0 V wire would be unaffected as before, but the +48 V wire would quickly be destroyed if it came into contact with wet earth. The electrochemical action would plate metal off the +48 V wire, reducing its thickness to the point that it would eventually break, interrupting telephone service. This choice of polarity was not accidental, corrosion problems in some of the earliest telegraphy systems pointed the way.

[edit] Testing
Electrochemical potential is measured with reference electrodes. Copper-copper(II) sulfate electrodes are used for structures in contact with soil or fresh water. Silver chloride electrodes are used for seawater applications.

[edit] Galvanized Steel
Galvanizing (or galvanising, outside of the USA) generally refers to hot-dip galvanizing which is a way of coating steel with a layer of metallic zinc. Galvanized coatings are quite durable in most environments because they combine the barrier properties of a coating with some of the benefits of cathodic protection. If the zinc coating is scratched or otherwise locally damaged and steel is exposed, the surrounding areas of zinc coating form a galvanic cell with the exposed steel and protect it from corrosion. This is a form of localised cathodic protection - the zinc acts as a sacrificial anode.

-------------------------

cathodic protectio...

Hosted by eSnips

Kai_Zen

Is a Japanese recipe for management , It's truly a philosophy engraved in the core of each Japanese mind

Kaizen aims to eliminate waste . It is often the case that this means "to take it apart and put back together in a better way." This is then followed by standardisation of this 'better way' with others, through standardized work.

Kaizen is a daily activity whose purpose goes beyond improvement. It is also a process that, when done correctly, humanizes the workplace, eliminates overly hard work (both mental and physical), and teaches people how to perform experiments using the scientific method and how to learn to spot and eliminate waste in business processes.
Kaizen must operate with three principles in place: process and results (not results-only); systemic thinking (i.e. big picture, not solely the narrow view); and non-judgmental, non-blaming (because blaming is wasteful).
People at all levels of an organization participate in kaizen, from the [CEO] down, as well as external stakeholders when applicable. The format for kaizen can be individual, suggestion system, small group, or large group. In Toyota it is usually a local improvement within a workstation or local area and involves a small group in improving their own work environment and productivity.
Whilst Kaizen (in Toyota) usually deliver small improvements the culture of continual small improvements and standardisation yields large results in a form of compound productivity improvement. Hence the English translation of Kaizen can be: "continuous improvement", or "continual improvement."
The "zen" in Kaizen emphasizes the learn-by-doing aspect of improving production. This philosophy differs from the "command-and-control" improvement programs of the mid-twentieth century. Kaizen methodology includes making changes and monitoring results, then adjusting. Large-scale pre-planning and extensive project scheduling are replaced by smaller experiments, which can be rapidly adapted as new improvements are suggested.

For my own personal experience with this method of management , was through a company I was working in called Rum-alaadin for Metal forming In which we were Involved in a workshop

activity , Partially theoratical for applying what we are learning through the slideshows

Our Group was working on a 150 Ton press which took us long time to put it In order remove the waste and the grease , after the press was cleaned and the Obstacles removed from the way and the metal sheets were put in Order some photos were taken for each level of the Job and finally a Presentation was done In which we showed our commitment to the team work and the work done , It was really a nice experience but the problem Is that It never brought for me personally any use or at least this is what I think...

Brain Storming

Brain-Storming is a method of having Ideas given from different people usually at the same time In order for the Ideas to compete with one another in a fight for the fittest and once the strongest Candidate comes to the spotlight all the people will receive it in big Joy and Happiness

Brain storming is a technique that could be done on a group of people and one can apply it to himself to find out the best Idea.

Mindmap is the method that anybody can apply to himself.

Let's try it ...

Passion is what Pays at the End

People sometimes have no choice but take the choices displayed ,they don't work just a little

Bit more to uncover the hidden choices that they could find , which their passion leads to It is dangerous

Not to be lead by your passion , cause if you are doing your Job just for the material you are damn bad .

When you are passionate about what you do for a living you enjoy it more. You also do it better.

The trick is not just to feel passionately about your job, but to act passionately too. Use you

passion to move projects ahead, to find innovative solutions to perplexing problems, to work through the interpersonal conflicts.

If you act passionately, you won't sit passively through another boring meeting. You can't. You

will share that passion with the others in the meeting. Your energy can lift all of them. Even if it

doesn't, you will feel better knowing you are doing something to advance the cause in which you believe passionately.

Passionate people get more done. They don't spend time worrying about what they have to do next. They don't scheme about how to get out of doing something. And they don't have to waste time dreaming about a vacation they want to take to get away from the job.

Don't be afraid and feel that you'll never find your chance , Just walk into the marshes and don't be afraid to be wet , make the change and don't wait that you'll one day be obliged to do it .

those people who have passion are blessed cause they are the ones who shall lead the others

cause other people simply passionless about what they are doing , and this is your driving force to surpass them and be promoted all above the others.

don't Hide behind the screens

Hiding behind the screens will make you happy for a while

But eventually you'll feel the knife of Betrayal stabbed in your back

Cause no body stays in his place for long time , this is the rule of the game


if you want to hide do it for ambush if you want to hide do it for stabbing the

back of someone else don't stay Inncocent , think evil of others and trust no one

But show trust as they demand to be trusted , draw the limits

Today it was a historic day

Today it was part of history for the HFO project , finally the long awaited lifting and one of the critical movements happened the Pipe Bridge one was lifted and placed successfully in it is place

After waiting for the last hours of agony for the Lifting to take place and after Jojo John has
finally sanctioned the permit for lifting the Pipe Bridge one was lifted using a 220 ton crane

in about 40 minutes the ordeal was done and pipe bridge was in it place safe and sound as if it
was there for ever.

to tell the truth this was critical part of the Job knowing that the lifting took place over

Live gas pipeline , which supplies the Natural gas in it's liquid form for the rest of the world

So we were so lucky to have done flawlessly , But the problem now will be the Pipe bridge which

far longer and It will be also critical cause It will be lifted above live gas pipelines .

WOQOOD HFO BUNKERING FACILITY ,RAS LAFFAN QATAR

the damaged fmc HFO loading Arm

The Two Tanks for HFO Storage + the site preparation for the Future Tank

THE Heaters and Blowers the Loading Arms for LNG Fuelling (not part of the Project)


This is one of the biggest projects I was assigned to and Involved into , the aim of this project is


to cater HFO which is the heavy fuel oil that's required for the LNG tankers , as a fuel for

Transporting the liquified gas to other countries , the project of course consists of Two big tanks

60 meters in diameter each and 17 meters height (a total of 45000 cubic meters of volume) ,


These tanks are fed through Import pipeline from HFO tankers and then an export pipeline is


going to provide the HFO again to the tankers , but not before processing it through passing it


Through the heaters that heats up the HFO to it's optimum temperature and then pumped


to it's destination , eventually it will reach the berth area where the Loading arms loads the


Fuel into the tanks , Working here in Raslaffan isnt an easy thing , and that's because of the


Inhereted regulations that are set by RLIC (Raslaffan Industrial City)and other parties , like the
End users , Also the rules set by the Qatari goverment .

One of the Obstacles that anyone could face is the complications that you'll meet for finding a

place to live , and the best way to transport is a private car or rented one, Qatar is a small country and the only Urban city is

Doha practically the other cities were created due to the need of finding a nearer place for the labor men
who muts travel long periods everyday if they were living in Doha 85 Km. away from Raslaffan city

one more thing is that travelling to the site of work every day and returning back to Doha is another burden that you have to add on the list .

putting in mind that Doha isnt that city that you can enjoy yourself a lot in it , night life is limited
to the bars in the hotels , social life is possible but you should create your circle of friends first

as per to me I'm enjoying Doha more than Dubai and that came against my expectations the reason lies in the simpliciy of this city and the easiness of transportation inside it, provided that
you are not using taxis of Buses which are rare and limited to Karwa operators.

I started this Job on the 10th of October 2006 , the day I joined MIS Qatar , when I arrived

for the first week we were still oriented about the Job , and the problems that is attached to

it especially the hefty beaurcracy of the permit to work procedure in ras laffan due to the
Interconnectivity between all the Operating parties and endusers which we have to concur


our deals with them , due to having our Jobs at a proximity with them.

Another obstacle is that visas are not always granted and most of the people are working on

Business visa , and that's why they should leave qatar every 3 months , and they might return

so this impose an extra burden which is to find a replacement and to teach him again all the details

another problem is that , there's no coordination between the differenet parties ,on dealing with certain topics , Information cycle isnt complete adding to this that no channels of communication are well established from the beginning which creates a continous gap if Info.

the gap in Info. created a logistic problem also , and the bad communication channels added to

the problem by having undesired materials arriving which lead us to additional loss of time and effort.

when I first visit the site I was wondering what happened and why the people are so slow In
acheiving a good progress as I was expecting , But it turned to be that the Subcontractor is

not doing his Job as required due to his lack of experience in such Jobs and due to so many other
complications related to their original environment, and culture of doing things .

for companies that are taking EPIC jobs I would rather suggest that they must not depend
on their telecommunicational skills to fulfil the logistic requirement of a Job cause that for
sure will create additional problems and a lot of mishaps will occur making the Job , a
total failure .

We are now in the mid of March , the project is still sluggish , and the materials are just dropping
In from sharjah or wherever in slow and some times bad manner last week we had our FMC
Loading arm damaged because of problem while transportaion of the ship which would cost
additional time and money , we are not willing to spend .